In Malawi, pupils' performance in reading has been dismal, particularly in the lower levels of primary school, despite implementing various initiatives to help pupils read and comprehend texts. There are no set of factors that are determined for a minimum package required to successfully deliver a reading curriculum within the context and environment of the pupils. Therefore, the study investigated the factors contributing to pupils’ low acquisition of early reading skills despite decades of implementing reading instruction through an evidence-based curriculum in Lungwena, Mangochi District,Malawi. Additionally, the study modelled factors that significantly contribute to pupils’ ability to develop reading skills. Using a quantitative approach, the study administered a standardised reading test for pupils with two years of primary education. Pupils with varying levels of nutrition supplementation took the test to determine the relationship between early nutrition supplementation and their reading ability. The mean reading scores of each group of students served as a proxy for this association. Furthermore, the study evaluated contextual factors relating to pupils, their households, and school resources to identify key elements that complement reading instruction at each gradelevel and, thus, necessitate customisation in developing and implementing reading curricula. The study found several patterns. First, pupils who mastered pre-reading skills performed higher on reading fluency tests. Second, pupils who received a high level of early nutrition intensity had high mean scores in reading fluency (40 correct words per minute), followed by a moderate nutrition intensity group (26 correct words per minute), a lower moderate group (29), and the least group with nutrition supplementation (30 correct words per minute). Third, pupil, household, and contextual factors contributed significantly to developing reading skills. Specifically, reading practice improved pupils' reading abilities by a factor of 0.53 (p= 0.0001). The number of times an adult read to a pupil at home increased the pupil's reading scores by a factor of 0.21 (p=0.0275). Supplementary reading materials in homes improved pupils' reading scores by a factor of 0.2 (p= 0). Early nutrition supplementation improved pupils' reading abilities by 0.13 (p=0.05). Absenteeism decreased pupils’ reading abilities by a factor of 0.11 (p=0.013); a well-utilised school library improved pupils' reading abilities by a factor of 0.39 (p=0); pupils who had reading homework increased their reading abilities by a factor of 0.28 (p=0.018). Lastly, homogeneity in the pupils' height, places where pupils practice reading, and the number of pupils per classroom did not affect how well a pupil developed reading skills. In conclusion, evidence-based reading instruction thrives on well-focused attention to contextual factors at the pupil, household, and school levels. However, fidelity in reading instruction alone cannot sustain reading gains and facilitate pupils' development of reading skills. The study argues that reading instruction thrives in a supportive environment in contexts in which pupils live. Breaking homogeneity in the pupil, household, and school factors is critical for pupils' varied and sustained reading performance.

The dissertation explores linkages between primary education internal efficiency and the recurrent budget in Malawi. Specifically it explores how the recurrent budget addresses factors that contribute to the internal efficiency of primary education system. It further examines the dynamics of the budgetary processes, financing policies and the composition of the education budget during the research period. This is done through a correlation analysis on recurrent budget and internal efficiency indicators (enrolment, repetition rate and dropout). Furthermore, a cohort analysis is conducted to examine the extent of efficiency levels. This is complemented by financing policy and budget document analysis so that the financing policies that have guided the composition of the budget are clear. Lastly, interviews are conducted to get into the insights of technicians involved in the preparation and implementation of the primary education budget. The results show that the primary education resources in the budget do not correlate with the internal efficiency indicators and that the recurrent budget does not specifically address core factors that tackles and contributes to the efficiency of the primary education system. The primary education system is muddled with significant levels of wastage to the extent that undermines the potential impact of resources on primary education. Notwithstanding this, the conclusion and recommendations show that there is hope that continued policy dialogue, administrative reforms, and research will present strategies in areas of education budgeting, financing policies and addressing of pertinent issues for the improvement of the primary education system through interventions that tackles obtaining and emerging challenges with deserved flexibility, prudence and in a realistic manner